Wool! What is it good for? Absolutely everything.
It goes without saying that wool has been a keystone of human history for thousands of years. From the domestication of sheep descended from mouflon in ancient Mesopotamia roughly 13,000 years ago, the shearing of sheep and production of wool have allowed generations of people to endure some of the most extreme conditions on earth. In the twenty-first century, wool is not typically considered a prime choice for summer wear. If you were living in the 1860s, however, wool would have been a staple of your wardrobe and household. From clothing and blankets to socks and household textiles, wool was an exceptionally versatile material. Textiles can be an unexpectedly complicated subject, so I will do my best to approach the topic in a meaningful and accessible way. I will begin with some of the scientific characteristics of wool and the differences between the ways it was processed, before exploring its many uses and its importance in Antebellum and Civil War America. Wool could also tell a story about the person wearing it. Blue or gray? Soldier or civilian? Practical necessity or a display of wealth? The answer could be found, at least in part, in the textiles themselves.
“Worsted” vs. “Woolen” — Why does it matter for this discussion?
Worsted and woolen are words that are sometimes used synonymously by textilists, but are actually quite different in their uses. In fact, even their method of processing is different. Using the incorrect type of textile will greatly determine the efficacy of a finished project; kind of like using the wrong kind of motor oil in your car. It’s also important to note that “woolen” can also refer to the material in which the garment is made, not necessarily just the method of production.
In simple terms, worsted fabrics are typically dense and are not usually considered comfortable. Worsted yarn is dense, often keeps much of the lanolin (natural oils from the sheep’s skin) for strength and waterproofing. If spun thin enough, it could be used to create a very strong thread for sewing fabric together and, in some cases, even sewing heavy sails that undergo high tension. In modern use, it’s most used for professional wear such as suit jackets, skirts, flat caps, and trousers. Consequently, worsted garments are often classified as less insulating, uniform in appearance, and longevity of wear.
Woolen, on the other hand, is characteristically desirable for its fluffy, soft, and airy texture. With low
tensile strength, the individual fibres are separated by air pockets. Think about polyfill stuffing in a parka, and how warm those “pockets” of stuffing keep you by trapping body heat in using airspace. Woolen textiles do much the same thing, just on a smaller scale.
The image on the right depicts the physical differences between worsted and woolen yarns. Fibres are prepared differently in each method, but they both begin with raw wool. The wool is then washed and thoroughly dried before moving forward. Worsted preparation will then begin by combing the fibres on hackles (you’ve probably seen these before– they have large, nail-like teeth pointing upwards from a board) and are combed so that all of the fibres are aligned in the same direction. In addition, this process removes any second cuts (small, fluffy bits of fibre where the shearer passed over the same area of the sheep twice) and other debris. They are then dizzed off of the hackles, a process by which the fibres are gently pulled to a single gauge into long bunches known as “roving.” This is by far the most common production method today.
Woolen fibre is prepared by a different process. After washing and drying the fleece, the fibres are placed onto curved paddles with hundreds of small teeth that are also curved. They look much like modern slicker brushes for dogs. The fibre is then brushed thoroughly over and over to scramble the fibres. In doing so, air pockets will form and create a light, fluffy texture. The end results of both methods will then be spun into yarn.
The Garments – Beyond the Uniform
Woolen and worsted processes create a wide variety of uses for textile production. In Antebellum America, wool and cotton mills were extremely popular, and created significant economic prowess for almost century-old America. Improvements in mechanized spinning and weaving during the first half of the nineteenth century allowed manufacturers to produce woolen goods on an increasingly large scale. The Civil War would place extraordinary demands upon this existing textile industry, creating an enormous need for uniforms, blankets, greatcoats, socks, and other woolen goods. Power-driven looms, which had been developing since the early nineteenth century, allowed manufacturers to produce goods such as blankets in quantities far beyond what could have been achieved through hand weaving alone. Where supplies of all-wool cloth were limited, wool-and-cotton fabrics such as jean cloth provided a practical alternative. Jean cloth could be considerably less expensive in terms of wool consumption while retaining some of wool's durability and warmth, and it became an important material in Confederate clothing. Blockades, disruption of established transportation networks, and limited industrial capacity are just a few reasons why wool blends were used in the Southern Army rather than just wool.
As with anything in life, there were several opinions about wartime clothing in the life of soldiering. Having wool clothing versus enjoying wool clothing were two very different things. While they were often praised, others took to complaining about the wool garments offered contractually by the U.S. Army. John Billings in his 1887 diary, Hartack & Coffee, writes “when they retired, after tattoo roll-call, they did not strip to the skin…They were satisfied, ordinarily, with… [stripping] to their flannels, and… would turn in, and pass a very comfortable night.” In addition, Billings also stresses the point that “flannels were the order of the day,” meaning that flannel undergarments were used considerably. He also recalled that some of the flannel issued by the government was “rough to the skin,” demonstrating that the practical advantages of wool did not necessarily translate into comfortable clothing. Garments used by soldiers had a strong emphasis on lasting wear rather
than comfortability.
Several soldiers both Federal and Confederate have written about the clothing supplied– or lack thereof –by the government. The quartermaster system was generally an effective measure of keeping woolen goods in the hands of soldiers, but there were times where soldiers sought clothing from other means. “We were allowed $42 a year for clothes… Most of my underclothing… had been bought outside [the quartermaster system],” says Charles W. Bardeen of the U.S. Army in his diary A Little Fifer’s War Diary. The clothing allowance system in the period between 1861 and 1865 was a point of frustration for many. If the allowance was surpassed, wage garnishment would be implemented to repay debts owed.
The single placket undershirt on the right belonging to The Merchant Tailor Museum is just one example of a wool undershirt that could have been worn by a soldier. To the left is a knit pair of drawers that would have been worn under a soldier’s uniform. Both pieces are thought to have been created between 1860 and 1865.
Despite the quartermaster system providing clothing for soldiers, the “warehouse” often extended beyond his tent.
Wives, daughters, sisters, and mothers would send garments to their loved ones. These would have been considered luxury items; the army did provide items like socks, but mittens and knit hats or caps generally were not. Soldiers could obtain them through the military supply system, purchase them privately, or receive them from home and charitable organizations. The Smithsonian notes that soldiers frequently requested socks and other clothing from their families, while civilian organizations supplied clothing and other necessities to the armies.
No Feet, No Soldier; The Humble Sock
It can be argued that socks were perhaps the most critical garment a soldier could have on his person. Unlike a coat or blanket, which could be removed when conditions allowed, socks were in constant contact with the feet—the very part of the body upon which a marching soldier depended. A poorly fitting, wet, or worn-out pair could quickly become more than an inconvenience. Blisters, abrasions, and other foot injuries could impede a soldier's ability to march and, in extreme circumstances, render him unable to remain with his unit. Indeed the Federal Army recognized this and allowed the issue of four pairs of socks per year, or about one pair of socks per every three months. It’s estimated that a union soldier would sometimes march fifteen or more miles per day. Combined with wet, muddy, sweaty conditions, Wool has been, for centuries, a particularly outstanding choice for socks. Worsted
wool socks are moisture-wicking, surprisingly resistant to absorbing liquids, and could generally last a little while despite the abuse they underwent on the field.
For the homefront, a pair of socks represented something much larger than a simple garment. A soldier's wool socks might begin as fleece shorn from a sheep, pass through washing, combing, spinning, and dyeing, and finally arrive as a hand-knitted object in a soldier's knapsack. The distance between the sheep and the soldier could encompass an entire network of agricultural labor, textile manufacturing, domestic work, commerce, and wartime relief.
Things of Comfort – City Point Hospital
City Point Hospital, a hospital whose stature surpassed the capability of holding 10,000 soldiers at a time, was one of the busiest hospitals during the American Civil War. From June to October of 1864, the hospital’s surplus storehouse had distributed 35,789 woolen and 532 canton-flannel shirts to soldiers while another 4,136 cotton shirts were also sent to the Depot Field Hospital (this was one of seven field hospitals operating under City Point). From February to April of 1865, City Point Hospital had received an additional 21,681 cotton and wool shirts. These articles of clothing saved lives. Adelaide Smith writes in Reminiscences of an Army Nurse During the Civil War that the wards of City Point Hospital were “wonders of cleanliness” and that additional rations and garments were provided to soldiers to “make life more endurable and pleasant” for those unfit to return to duty.
What About Civilians?
Soldiers were not the only ones to benefit from wool. Capes, shawls, waistcoats, blankets, and luxury goods (e.g. carpets, rugs, etc.) were often made from wool. Crochet was increasing in popularity as indicated by the printing of Godey’s Lady’s Book from 1830 to 1896! For women, sontags and mariposes made from woolen yarns would have provided great warmth for the working class. Nearly every article of clothing in the household of a poor or middle class person would have been made from wool or a wool blend. Silk was popular as well, but would not have been accessible to the general public. Dresses and cloaks were key in the daily life of a civilian four pairs of socks per year, or about a pair of socks per every three months. It’s estimated that a union soldier would march approximately fifteen miles per day. Combined with wet, muddy, sweaty conditions, Wool has been, for centuries, an outstanding choice for socks. Worsted wool socks are moisture-wicking, surprisingly resistant to absorbing liquids, and could generally last a little while despite the abuse they underwent on the field.
Although jeancloth was considered to be of lesser value than pure woolen textiles, wool, cotton, and silk blends could also be made into fine articles. The red Jacquard coverlet depicted in this image was woven by Andrew Corrick and is approximated to have been created between 1835 and 1850. It is a wool and cotton blend and is an exquisite example of a luxury item. It belongs to The Henry Ford Collection and is held in their private collection. Similarly, the red, white, and blue Jacquard coverlet from 1858 pictured is another expertly made textile from wool and cotton. The waistcoat on the right is a wool and silk blend tailored between 1860 and 1865. The Merchant Tailor Museum holds this piece in their collection.
Dear Old Coat – A. Abbot
“How can I cast thee off with-out rendering to thee a tribute of respect? Yes! "Dear Old Coat," the fear of regret moistens my eye at thought that thou wilt never again embrace me, thou hast often protected me from the inclemency of the storm. Thou hast snugly wrapped thyself around my shivering form to defend me from the chilling blast of a December wind. Yea: still more: thou hast done all in my power to shield my back from the scorching rays of an August sun. How tenderly, day after day, hast thou encircled me? always suiting thy-self to my necessities. But with all the kindness, thou hast like frail humanity, had thy faults. Not like the fashion of the cold hearted world will I cast thee aside without rehearsing some of them. No! No! Dear Old Coat, I cannot do thee such injustice. Thou knowest full well, we were living in an age of progression. While I have been extending my dimension indifferent, no arguments could prevail upon thee to enlarge thy borders. Thy greatest folly is, thou hast allowed pride and vanity with their rough brushes to wear away the gloss and beauty of thy once noble fabric, and now thou art a mu[illegible] wreck. Yes, when diligent hands would have gladly repaired thy torn body - thou hast as often, with a haughty air, turned aside. But, "Dear Old Coat," surrounded as thou hast ever been with pomp & delusive fashion, I will freely forgive the [sic] all thy follies, and to repay thee for thy faithful services to me, I will reserve for thy use the most favored niche in my wardrobe, where thou will be preserved from the accumulating dust of years, and thou canst screan [sic] thyself from the gaze of the multitude. Carefully will I watch over thee, that no evil cometh near the habitation and when future generation ["s" struck through here] enquire concerning thee they shall know that thou wast one of my most faithful friends in youthful days.”
–Austin Abbot
W. Branch, Michigan
Wool!
(Huh! Yeah!)
What is it good for?
Well, uh...
Uniforms.
Socks.
Blankets.
Greatcoats.
Flannel.
Hospital clothing.
Civilian dress.
Knitting.
Mending.
…keeping somebody warm when the army forgot how cold it was outside.
What is it good for?
Absolutely everything.
REFERENCES.
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